Gender-based violence in a rural Nigerian community during the COVID-19 era: a call for policy action

Introduction: gender-based violence (GBV) is a global pandemic which is deeply rooted in culture, hence the need to contextually understand its occurrence and patterns in rural settings. The objective of this study assessed respondents´ attitude, prevalence, the perceived risk factors, patterns and predictors of GBV in Ife-Odan, Osun State, Nigeria. Methods: cross-sectional study design was used and multi-stage sampling method employed to recruit 450 consenting adults. A pretested interviewer-administered, semistructured questionnaire was used for data collection. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were carried out. Results: mean age (±SD) of the respondents was 30.73±7.0, 58.7% of them were females and 88.0% had negative attitude to GBV. Prevalence of any form of GBV was 16.2%. Predominant GBV types included intimate partner violence (IPV) (58.3%), female genital mutilation (FGM) (31.1%), Sexual violence (6.9%) and incest (3.4%). Perceived risk factors of GBV included cultural acceptance, substance abuse, lack of punishments for GBV offenders, indecent female dressing styles, social media influences, effects of COVID-19 lockdown and male dominance. However, gender (AOR=7.82; 95%CI=2.35-8.17), marital status (AOR=3.23;95%CI=1.82-3.78), religion (AOR=5.02;95%CI=1.78-9.63) and attitude (AOR=4.23; 95%CI=2.267-5.82) were the significant predictors of past GBV experiences in the study setting. Conclusion: gender-based violence (GBV) is prevalent in the study setting, with IPV being the most common. There is need for policymakers to focus on cultural transformation by designing a robust awareness campaign against GBV in rural Nigerian communities. Traditional and religious leaders should be sensitized and involved in the campaign programs using all available channels of communication. Laws prohibiting perpetration of GBV need to be fully implemented.

Reporting of sexual and gender-based violence and associated factors among survivors in Mayuge, Uganda

background: Reporting of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) allows survivors to access support services to minimize the impact of the violence on their lives. However, research shows that most SGBV survivors do not report. Objective: We aimed to determine the proportion of survivors of SGBV in Mayuge District, Uganda, who report SGBV, and the factors associated with reporting. Methods: Using a cross-sectional study design, we analyzed data of SGBV survivors in eight villages in Mayuge district collected in a baseline survey of a larger experimental study. Data were analyzed using Modified Poisson Regression. Results: Of the 723 participants, 65% were female. Only 31.9% had reported the SGBV experienced. Reporting was 43% lower among survivors aged 45 years and older (p-value = 0.003), and 41% lower among survivors with higher than a primary school education (p-value = 0.005). Likewise, reporting was 37% lower among survivors who relied on financial support from their partners (p-value = 0.001). Female survivors were also 63% more likely to report (p-value = 0.001), while survivors who were separated/widowed were 185% more likely to report than those who were never married (p-value = 0.006). Conclusions: Reporting of SGBV by survivors in Mayuge was found to below

Prevalence of violence towards men living with HIVAIDS in rural communities of Southwestern Uganda

Background: Violence towards HIV positive men is one of the silent barriers to utilization of HIV care services. HIV positive men are potential victims of violence from other people including women, and violence may interfere with treatment outcomes. This study determined the prevalence of violence towards HIV positive men in rural communities of southwestern Uganda. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 307 HIV positive men at selected health centers using an interviewer administered questionnaire. Data were analyzed in SPSS version 23 using chi-square and multivariate regression at 95% level of significance and a precision of 0.05. Results: Of the 307 participants, 45.3% had experienced violence. Of these, 23.8% (n=73) had experienced kicking or slapping while 12.7% (39) reported sexual violence. Factors associated with violence were; using alcohol and drugs (aOR 0.26, 95% CI 0.09-0.76, p=0.014), knowledge of support structures (OR 2.25, 95% CI 1.33-3.78, p=0.002) and owning land for farming (aOR 0.26, 95% CI 0.10-0.70, p=0.011). Conclusion: The prevalence of violence at 45.3% is quite high especially since violence against men is rarely talked about. This should not be ignored there should be strategies to support this vulnerable group

Associations between COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and the experience of violence among women and girls living with and at risk of HIV in Nigeria

Aim: Women and girls living with and at high risk of HIV (WGL&RHIV) had an increased risk for gender-based violence (GBV) during COVID-19. The study aimed to assess the associations between vaccine hesitancy and GBV, HIV status and psychological distress among these vulnerable women and girls in Nigeria. Methods: This cross-sectional study collected data from WGL&RHIV in 10 states in Nigeria between June and October 2021. The dependent variable was vaccine hesitancy. The independent variables were the experience of physical, sexual, economic and emotional GBV, HIV status and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. We conducted a multivariable logistics regression analysis to test the associations between vaccine hesitancy and the independent variables and covariates. Results: Among the 3 431 participants, 1 015 (22.8%) were not willing to be vaccinated against COVID-19. Not knowing or willing to disclose HIV status (aOR 1.40) and having mild (aOR 1.36) and moderate (aOR 1.38) symptoms of anxiety and depression were significantly associated with higher odds of vaccine hesitancy. Being a survivor of intimate partner physical violence (aOR 5.76), non-intimate partner sexual violence (aOR 3.41), as well as emotional abuse (aOR 1.55) were significantly associated with respectively more than five, three and one and half times higher odds of vaccine hesitancy. One positive outcome is that HIV-positive women and girls appeared to be more likely to get the COVID-19 vaccine when available. Conclusions: Sexual and gender-based violence, low socio-economic status, psychological distress and an unknown HIV status are essential determinants of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among vulnerable women and girls in Nigeria. National authorities and civil society organisations need to better integrate COVID-19 mitigation activities with HIV and gender-based violence interventions through a more feminist approach that promotes gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls in all their diversity for better access to health services.

Perceptions of the rape crisis in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: A community-based approach using an opportunistic design

For almost three decades, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has experienced cycles of armed conflict, particularly in the east. During these conflicts, systematic rape has been used as a weapon of war to break women and communities. Knowledge produced about this phenomenon to date relates to the epidemiology, etiology and the consequences of these rapes, particularly on survivors in care institutions, thus ignoring the impact this phenomenon has on the communities. Our survey aims to investigate the extent to which women from the Orientale, North Kivu and South Kivu provinces experienced rape, as well as their perceptions regarding its frequency, characteristics, and repercussions for/on victims in their communities. From a sample of 1483 women, more than 99% had directly or indirectly experienced rape, on at least five occasions in three-quarters of cases. In their experience, a large proportion of the rapes took place at the victims' homes in the presence of family members and were perpetrated by members of military or paramilitary groups. Frequent health problems (several possibilities) reported include: bleeding (40.8%), pain (23.9%); unwanted pregnancies/abortions (23.4%), urogenital problems including STD (12.0%). Concerning mental health, they reported fear and anxiety (56.3%), depression and suicidal thoughts (16.8 %), insomnia (5.3%); 94.7% reported feelings of humiliation and shame and 6.9% social exclusion and stigmatization. Support for victims comes largely from NGOs (47.6%), families (27.1%) and Churches (14.3%). This is a major cultural, economic, political, human rights, and public health problem, which the authorities and international community must commit to tackling. (Afr J Reprod Health 2022; 26[4]: 42-56).

The intersection of corruption and gender-based violence: Examining the gendered experiences of sextortion during migration to South Africa

Sextortion, a gendered form of corruption where sexual favours are the means of exchange, frequently occurs during migration.While the consequences of surviving sextortion are devastating, sextortion remains relatively understudied. Hence, this paper explores the experiences of sextortion of African migrants migrating to South Africa. Based on interviews with experts on migration, corruption, and gender in South Africa, this paper answers the research question: "What are the experiences of sextortion for African migrants migrating to South Africa and how are they gendered?". The results confirm irregular, female migrants are most vulnerable to experiencing sextortion both during their journeys and in South Africa. This is alarming as there are various psychical, mental, and sexual health consequences like trauma, STIs, pregnancies, and stigmatisation. These consequences have both short- and long-term consequences and will continue to exist without adjusted policy frameworks, improved support systems for survivors, and a broader discussion on gender norms. (Afr J Reprod Health 2022; 26[6]:45-54).

Violences sexuelles à l'hôpital Donka (Guinée)

Introduction. L'objectif de ce travail était de déterminer la prévalence, le profi l épidémiologique et clinique des victimes de violences sexuelles prises en charge au Centre Hospitalo-universitaire de Donka. Méthodes. Il s'agissait d'une étude rétrospective de type descriptif qui s'est déroulée du 01 Janvier2015 au 31 Décembre 2017à l'unité de médecine légale. Résultats. Sur un total de 1937 cas constituant l'ensemble des consultations en victimologie, 16% étaient descas de violence sexuelle.L'âge moyen des victimes était de 8 ansavec des extrêmes de 5 et 56ans et un écart type de 10,79.Dans la majorité des cas, l'agresseur était connu de la victime mais ne faisait pas partie de l'entourage familial direct (52,6%). Les victimes ont consulté majoritairement au cours des 5 premiers jours (55,8%) avec des extrêmes de 8heures et 30jours.Il s'agissait dans la majorité des cas des défl orations anciennes (54,2%). Conclusion : Nos résultats ne sauraient refl éter exactement l'ampleur du phénomène car la majorité des victimes préfère pour une raison ou une autre taire leur drame

Forms and determinants of sexual abuse among female child hawkers in Uyo, Nigeria

Background: Female hawkers are exposed to numerous hazards including sexual abuse. This study aimed at assessing the prevalence, forms and determinants of sexual abuse among female child hawkers in Uyo, Nigeria. Methods: This was a cross-sectional descriptive study carried out among female child hawkers in Uyo, Nigeria. Data was collected using an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire and was analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics 20.0 software. Level of significance was set at 0.05. Result: A total of 172 respondents participated in the study. The mean age was 12.9±2.3 years. School dropout rate was 11.6% among respondents. Commonest reasons for hawking included family support (66.8%), feeding (22.1%) and generating school fees (11.1%). Prevalence of any form of sexual abuse was 76.2%. Forms of sexual abuse reported included verbal abuse (54.1%), inappropriate touching (56.4%), kissing (14.5%), intercourse due to enticement (18.0%) and rape (12.2%). The commonest reason for sexual act among those enticed was monetary gains, (64.5%). Consequences of sexual abuse included STI (13.5%), pregnancy (5.8%) and abortion (5.8%) respectively. Predictors of any form of sexual abuse included being aged 14-17 years (OR =14.70, 95%CI=2.05-105.14, p=0.007), being a dropout (OR=7.37, 95%CI=2.21-24.59, p=0.001) and being from social class V (OR=23.44, 95%CI=1.13-401.67, p=0.031). Conclusion: There was high prevalence of sexual abuse ranging from inappropriate touching to rape. Predictors of sexual abuse included age, being a dropout and of low socio economic class. Enlightenment campaigns on risks of female child hawking, establishment of skill acquisition centres and free education to secondary level are advocated

The Pattern of sexual assault in people presenting to a gynaecological unit of a tertiary hospital in South-West Nigeria

Context: Sexual assault is a crime of violence that incorporates unwanted sexual behaviour, such as sexual coercion, uninvited kissing, fondling, touching and ultimately, rape. Individuals prone to sexual abuse are usually the young, poor, and vulnerable members of society, who are often subject to other forms of social vices, such as domestic violence. Aims: To ascertain the pattern of sexual assault in people presenting to a large gynaecological unit of a tertiary referral centre, in Nigeria. Settings and Design: Methods and Material: The study is a descriptive cross-sectional study that was undertaken over a 2-year period from January 2011 to December 2012. Statistical analysis used: SPSS. Results: The prevalence of sexual assault in this study was 1.64%. The majority (90.3%) of victims were single. At least a third (n=35) had secondary education. 62.65% of the patients delayed presentation until after 24hours, (n=52). The commonest reason for delay in presentation was of fear or embarrassment in 51.80% (n=43). The commonest place of assault was at the assailant's home in 33.7% (n=28). Many cases of assault occurred at night. 63.65% of the victims wanted suspects to be prosecuted (n=53). 67.46% of the victims expressed the desire to take legal action (n=56). Only 51.80% of the respondents (n=43) were aware of a route of seeking re-dress. Conclusions: Victims of sexual assault delay their presentation to health facilities because of fear and embarrassment. A significant percentage of the victims do not know how to obtain medical help

Medico-legal documentation of rape or sexual assault: are community-service doctors equipped for the task?

Background: Following upon two-year internship, community-service doctors make mistakes when they deal with evidence of medico-legal examinations in various settings. These mistakes result in alleged perpetrators being released by courts. This study investigated undergraduate clinical forensic medicine training, based on experiences and opinions of community-service doctors. This article focuses on incidents of alleged rape cases only.Methods: The study was a quantitative retrospective cohort study that made use of a questionnaire with an adapted Likert scale. An electronic survey tool was employed to target 150 community-service doctors throughout South Africa. Percentages are used to display results.Results: A response rate of 59.3% was achieved. Although 80% of the participants reported that they had undergraduate training on how to manage alleged rape or sexual assault cases, only 11.4% of the participants had hands-on exposure to an alleged rape case during their undergraduate training. In addition, the majority of the participants (77.1%) never had undergraduate training on how to complete the J88 form. These findings indicate that clinical forensic training in the undergraduate medical programme does not adequately prepare community-service doctors to meet the challenges of clinical forensic practice. The current curriculum should be adapted to address these shortcomings.Conclusions: Perpetrators cannot be convicted if evidence collected cannot stand up in court. Proper training of undergraduate medical students prior to their community-service posting will ensure that medico-legal documentation is completed correctly, leading to the presentation of credible evidence in a court of law in order to ensure successful conviction of alleged perpetrators

Practice of community-service doctors in the assessment and medico-legal documentation of common physical assault cases

Background: In South Africa, allegations of physical assault are managed primarily at the primary healthcare level, where they are attended to by medical officers or community service doctors(CSDs). However, reports that the knowledge and skills provided at undergraduate level are not sufficient to equip these CSDs to deal with evidence in medico-legal examinations in various settings, including in cases of patients who allege being the victims of common physical assault or assault with intent to inflict grievous bodily harm, have been documented in the literature. This study investigates the practice of CSDs in relation to the assessment and medico-legal documentation of allegations of common assault, with a view to identifying gaps in their knowledge of clinical forensic medicine.Method: The study was a cross-sectional descriptive study. A questionnaire with quantitative sections that used an adapted Likert scale was used to gather data. An electronic survey tool was employed to target 150 CSDs countrywide. Percentages are used to display results. Results: A response rate of 59.3% was achieved and results indicate that clinical forensic training in the undergraduate medical programme does not prepare CSDs sufficiently for the task of managing the medico-legal examination and documentation of allegations of assault by patients. Conclusions: The courts rely heavily on medico-legal documentation for success in criminal prosecution. Any substantial flaw in the documentation, including inadequate observations and/or notes made by a medical practitioner, may make proving guilt very difficult. This study revealed an important gap in the knowledge and practice of clinical forensic medicine by CSDs and suggests that the current curriculum should be adapted to allow adequate training of undergraduate medical students in the area of clinical forensic medicine. Appropriate undergraduate training will ensure that medico-legal documentation is completed accurately and that medical practitioners help ensure the administration of justice

A five-year analysis of police records on sexual-related offences in Lagos State, Nigeria

Sexual violence is a major public health problem that calls for urgent attention in Nigeria. Surveys have shown that the prevalence of rape ranged from 4.4 to 21.3 per cent in different populations but information on outcomes of these offences have not been fully investigated. Furthermore; little is known about the nature; extent and pattern of sexual offences reported to the police. This study documented the pattern of sexual offences reported at the Metropolitan Lagos State Police Commands from 1999 to 2004. The study is descriptive and retrospective in design. Following the compilation of reported sexual offences from Crime Diary and Case Files; two pretested checklists were used to extract information on socio-demographic characteristics of perpetrators and victims and sexual context. In-depth interviews were also conducted with eighteen Police officers who are responsible for sexual offences. Statistical Analytical System (SAS) package was used to generate descriptive statistics. A total of 691 sexual offences were reported during the period under consideration. Rape accounted for 40.1% of the offences; 44% of the crimes were committed at the perpetrator's house; and virtually all victims 98.4% were females whose ages ranged from 4 to 56 years; victims were mostly neigbours to the perpetrators(42%). Only forty-seven case files were available for review as most were missing due to inadequate storage; Most(76.6%) of the Case files were withdrawn; 12.8% were under investigations; while 8.5% status were unknown. Preventive efforts that provide sexual health education that will equip young people with necessary skills to protect themselves be promoted

Intimate Partner Violence at a Tertiary Institution

Background. Intimate partner violence (IPV) is actual or threatened physical; sexual; psychological; emotional or stalking abuse by an intimate partner. Despite the high prevalence of IPV in South Africa (SA); there is a paucity of data on university students training in fields where they are likely to have to manage the after-effects of such events in their personal capacity in the future. Objectives. To ascertain the prevalence of IPV in an SA tertiary institution population with a diverse demographic profile.Methods. Students from the faculty of health sciences and the faculty of humanities; social work department; completed an anonymous questionnaire. Students were made aware of psychological counselling available to them.Results. Responses were obtained from 1 354 of 1 593 students (85.0%) (67.8% female; 45.9% black; 32.7% white; 16.6% Indian; 4.8% coloured). Of the respondents; 53.0% indicated that they were in a relationship. The prevalence of any type of IPV (sexual; physical or emotional abuse) among all respondents was 42.6%. Emotional abuse was reported by 54.9% of respondents; physical abuse by 20.0% and sexual abuse by 8.9%. Thirty-five females (6.5% of respondents who had suffered IPV) indicated that they had been emotionally; physically and sexually abused. Fourteen percent identified themselves as perpetrators of abuse; but only three perpetrators of sexual abuse reported having also been victims of sexual abuse. Most respondents (58.7%) knew where to get help.Conclusion. The extent of IPV among the medical and social work students sampled was found to be unacceptably high; both as victims and as perpetrators. As a result of their exposure to IPV; these individuals may have difficulty in managing patients who have been subjected to abuse

Impact of Parental Sex Education on Child Sexual Abuse among Adolescents

Background: Parental sex education of children is an often overlooked issue in pediatrics; especially in our society where talking about issues concerning sex is regarded as a taboo.Objectives: The objective of this study is to determine the impact of sex education on child sexual abuse among adolescents attending secondary schools in south east Nigeria.Methods: This is a cross-sectional study that was carried out among children in three secondary schools in Enugu and Ebonyi states of Nigeria. Five hundred and six adolescents who met inclusion criteria were consecutively recruited into our prospective study between June and October; 2014.Results: Eighty (80%) of respondents were educated by parents on sex abuse. Of those educated majority was by mother (46.2%) and both parents (45.2%). Most (72.1%) were not informed that family members or family friends can abuse children and 73.8% were not told to inform adults if it happens to them. A lower proportion (37.9%) of those educated by parents at home was abused. Those educated by parents were 1.23 times less likely to be abused than those not educated. There was significant difference in sex abuse between males and females (p=0.014) while there were no significant difference for age (p=0.157) and social class (p=0.233).Conclusion: Children educated by parents on sexual abuse were less likely to be sexually abused than those not educated. There is no link between socioeconomic class and child sexual abuse among adolescents

Fistules urogenitales: etude epidemiologique et clinique dans deux hopitaux generaux du district de la Tshopo; Kisangani-RDC

Introduction : Les fistules vesico-vaginales et recto-vaginales; veritable humiliation pour la femme; constituent un probleme majeur de Sante Publique de par sa forte prevalence principalement pour les pays pauvres (Afrique sub-saharienne et Asie du Sud-est). Dans cette etude; notre objectif a ete d'evaluer l'ampleur des fistules genito-urinaire et rectales a Kisangani et ses environs et d'en ressortir les causes ainsi que les caracteristiques des fistuleuses. Materiel et methodes : Une etude descriptive transversale retrospective basee sur l'analyse documentaire a ete menee dans les Hopitaux Generaux de Reference de Makiso-Kisangani (a Kisangani) et de Banalia (a Banalia) du 29 Aout au 08 Novembre 2013; apres sensibilisation des femmes par l'UNFPA. Resultats : La frequence des fistules genitourinaires et rectales a ete de 0;005 dans la ville de Kisangani et de 0;012 a Banalia soit une frequence globale de 0;008 soit 8 cas pour 1000 femmes survenant chez les femmes agees de 20 a 34 ans(45;61) avec des extremes d'age de 5 a 75 ans. 54;38 d'entr'elles etaient Mariees; 63;16 menageres; 80;71 de bas niveau d'instruction. Les femmes habitant les milieux peripheriques ou eloignes des centres hospitaliers ont ete les plus nombreuses soit 69;6 pour Kisangani et 67;6 pour Banalia. Les fistules souvent obstetricales (85;91) lors des accouchements a domiciles (50;8) etaient le plus souvent de type simple (57;89); a leur premiere reparation (52;63) et evoluant depuis de 2 mois a 55 ans. Les fistules traumatiques dues au viol a represente 1 ;75. La prise en charge a ete chirurgicale essentiellement basse dans 84;21 de cas avec un taux de succes de 82;46. Conclusion : La lutte contre les accouchements a domicile et les conflits armes et l'organisation des campagnes de prise en charge des fistuleuses constituent des strategies majeures de riposte contre les fistules vaginale

Dating violence and self-efficacy for delayed sex among adolescents in Cape Town, South Africa

In South Africa, dating violence is known to be widespread among adolescents, and is therefore a major public health issue because of its association with sexual risk behaviours. The objective of the study was to examine the relationship between dating violence and self-efficacy for delayed sex among school-going adolescents in Cape Town, South Africa. The study is based on analyses of data from a school-based health education programme targeting sexual and reproductive health issues.The study involved 3,655 school-going adolescents aged between 12 and 17 in Cape Town, South Africa. The data was collected by means of a self-administered questionnaire composed of 153 items on sexual and reproductive health, dating violence as well as socio demographic characteristics. The results indicated that males showed a higher percentage of both dating violence victimization and perpetration, as compared to females. It was also found that adolescents from lower socio-economic backgrounds were more likely to be the victims of dating violence as compared to those from a higher socio-economic background. Female learners showed higher levels of self-efficacy for delayed sex than their male counterparts. Although the result revealed that there was a significant association between self-efficacy for delayed sex and socio-economic status, this link decreased with age. It is concluded that educational programmes aimed solely at improving self-efficacy for delayed sex is insufficient. Such programmes must also aim at preventing dating violence and equipping adolescents with the skills to negotiate their way out of dating violence. Afr J Reprod Health 2014; 18[2]: 46-57)

Comparison of Trauma on Survivors of Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner Violence in Limpopo

Background: Gender-based violence is a challenge in South Africa; despite available interventions. Caring for the survivors of both forms of violence is critical for ensuring their speedy recovery. Objectives: To compare the effects of trauma on female survivors of sexual assault versus those experienced by survivors of physical assault by their intimate partners.Method: A quantitative cross-sectional comparative study design was used to compare 30 sexually-assaulted women and 30 physically-assaulted women regarding depressive symptoms; posttraumatic stress disorder and coping styles three months after the incident. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the survivors of both types of assault and the Beck Depression Inventory posttraumatic stress disorder checklist and Brief COPE Inventory were administered in order to obtain quantitative data. Both parametric and non-parametric statistics were employed. Ethical measures were adhered to throughout the research process.Results: A significantly-higher proportion of sexually-assaulted women disclosed the incident to family (p = 0.021). The majority of sexually- (90) and physically- (86) assaulted women were likely to recall the incident. Sexually-assaulted women had a significantly-higher mean for avoidance/numbness (p 0.001) and physical-assaulted women in arousal (p 0.051). About 41 of sexually-assaulted participants reported severe depression. Findings confirmed that sexual assault is more personal whilst physical assault is more interpersonal. If physically-assaulted women were removed from the perpetrators they recovered faster than sexually-assaulted women. Their stay with the perpetrators may perpetuate the violence.Conclusion: The need for counselling and support for the survivors of both traumas was recommended. All stakeholders should be educated to provide support to survivors of both traumas

Prevention of Sexual Assault in Nigeria

Sexual assault occurs commonly worldwide and is particularly pervasive in the developing world. The background to sexual violence is important in the understanding of the ramifications of the problem. Some elements that offer the means to the prevention of sexual assault in the community are important highlights especially where the means - expertise and facilities - for managing cases of sexual assault is grossly inadequate. These concepts; though are applicable universally; are however discussed in the context of the developing world and with particular emphasis on the Nigerian situation. Their applicability in sexual assault prevention is derived from previous studies in different parts of the world that highlight the viability of these interventions. Therefore if one posits that sexual assault can be prevented; certain responsibilities are imperative; some challenges must be anticipated; and special needs/circumstances should be catered for